The British Occupation of Manila 1762-1764
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The surrender of Manila to the British forces 1762. From a section of Carlos "Botong" Francisco's murals on the history of Manila |
The Seven Years' War and Complex Alliances
In the mid-1700s, Spain and Britain found themselves on opposing sides of the global conflict known as the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), driven by a web of intricate alliances. One significant outcome of this conflict in Asia was the British assault on Manila, spearheaded by a naval force under the command of William Draper. Despite their initial success in capturing the city of Manila, the British occupation was met with fierce resistance. The Real Audiencia of Manila, led by the determined Simon de Anda (honored today with the Anda Monument in Bonifacio Drive near Intramuros), retreated and continued to resist from outside the city, effectively limiting British control to Manila itself.
The Seven Years' War was a vast and complex conflict that involved nearly all major European powers, primarily fought in Europe and the Americas. On one side were Britain and Prussia, while France, allied with Austria, Spain, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony, stood on the other. The war stemmed from unresolved tensions left after the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) and was further fueled by colonial rivalries, particularly between Britain and France.
By 1756, alliances had shifted dramatically: Prussia aligned itself with Britain, while Austria, once a bitter rival of France, now joined forces with it. Spain, drawn into the war in 1762 to support France, attempted to invade Britain's ally, Portugal. This invasion failed, and Britain, in turn, attacked and seized Havana in Cuba and Manila in the Philippines. However, Spain's deeper involvement in this war traces back to earlier dynastic and political shifts.
From the Habsburgs to the Bourbons
The genetic toll of this inbreeding was devastating. Carlos II was born physically and intellectually disabled, rumors circulating that his head was filled with water rather than a functioning brain. He was incapable of ruling effectively, and much of the kingdom’s affairs were left to his mother, Queen Mariana, who acted as regent for many years. To this day, another Spanish territory in the Pacific—the Mariana Islands—is named after her. Another Pacific island group, the Carolinas, was named after Carlos II, ensuring both mother and son were immortalized across Spain's vast empire.
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| Charles II of Spain by Juan Miranda Carreon-- Believe it or not, this monarch once ruled a vast empire that includes the Philippines. This is Carlos II (reigned 1665-1700) also known as Carlos "el Hechizado" (the Hexed). |
Carlos II’s inability to produce an heir marked the end of the Habsburg dynasty in Spain, throwing Europe into crisis. With his death in 1700, the Spanish crown passed to Philip V of the House of Bourbon, a great-nephew of Carlos II. This transfer of power marked the beginning of Bourbon rule in Spain and its territories, solidifying ties between Spain and France, as Philip V was also a grandson of King Louis XIV of France.
This dynastic connection played a critical role in Spain’s involvement in the Seven Years' War. The alliance between France and Spain, known as the "Family Compact," was not only political but also deeply rooted in the shared Bourbon bloodline. As a result, when France found itself embroiled in the Seven Years' War against Britain, Spain inevitably joined its French relatives on the battlefield, leading to its involvement in conflicts as far-reaching as the Americas and the Philippines.
India--The Carnatic Wars
The Carnatic Wars in India were a series of military conflicts between Britain and France that took place in South India between 1746 and 1763, predating the global conflict of the Seven Years' War. This rivalry between the two European powers extended beyond Europe, spilling into Asia and affecting the territories of the Mughal Empire as well as the ambitions of local Indian rulers.
The wars were primarily fought over control of the Carnatic region, which stretched along the southeastern coast of India, encompassing key trading centers. Both Britain and France sought to dominate the region, not just for its economic resources but also for strategic supremacy in the Indian Ocean. The conflict drew in local Indian rulers, including the Nawabs of the Carnatic, the Marathas, and the Kingdom of Mysore, who aligned themselves with either the British or the French in a bid to advance their own regional interests.
The three Carnatic Wars mirrored the larger struggle for colonial dominance in India, where European military tactics and technologies clashed with the traditional warfare of Indian forces. The British East India Company and the French East India Company both fielded their own professional armies, supplemented by local Indian soldiers.
A significant portion of the British forces that attacked Manila during the initial phase of the invasion in 1762 were Indian auxiliaries employed by the British East India Company
British Invasion of Manila (1762)
As the British fleet prepared to set sail from Madras, India, to capture Manila, Brigadier General William Draper, commander of the invasion force, sarcastically referred to his troops as "our little army." Draper was frustrated by the fact that the British East India Company had provided far fewer soldiers than he had originally requested. Despite his disappointment, the core of the British force was composed of the 79th Regiment of Foot and a company of Royal Artillery.
What makes this force particularly interesting, however, is the diverse array of auxiliaries that accompanied it. Among them were 600 Sepoys—Indian soldiers recruited by the British East India Company—whose presence later became an enduring part of Philippine history. In addition to the Sepoys, there were a company of Caffrees (African troops), a company of Tropazes (Asian Portuguese), and several hundred Lascars (East Indian sailors). The Lascars, although unarmed, were vital to the engineers and artillery crews.
French illustration of "Sepoys" (or Cepayes in French). They were native soldiers from India conscripted into both British and French armies. Many residents of Cainta are believed to be descendants of Sepoy deserters who were brought to the Philippines by the British East India Company during their brief occupation of Manila from 1762 to 1764. When the city was returned to Spanish control, these Sepoys refused to leave and chose to remain in the area, eventually integrating into the local community.
The British force also included two companies of Frenchmen—prisoners captured during the Carnatic Wars in India--These French prisoners were forcefully conscripted into British service and made to fight alongside their captors in Manila.
On 23 September 1762, Draper force naval force consisting of eight ships of the line, three frigates, and four supply ship with a combined force of 6,839 regulars, sailors, and marine entered Manila Bay, having sailed from Madras, India.
Manila was left vulnerable and poorly led during the British invasion due to a power vacuum following the death of Governor-General Pedro Manuel de Arandia in 1759. His designated successor, Francisco de la Torre, was delayed in reaching the Philippines, partly due to the British capture of Havana in Cuba. In the meantime, the Spanish Crown appointed Manuel Rojo del Río y Vieyra, the Mexican-born Archbishop of Manila, as the temporary Lieutenant Governor. However, Rojo had no military experience, which resulted in a series of critical strategic errors by the Spanish defenders, leaving Manila unprepared to effectively resist the British assault. Completely unaware that a conflict was raging across Europe and parts of the world, Rojo and the Spanish officials were caught by surprise at the sight of British warships entering Manila. The global turmoil had now reached their shores.
On the night of 4. October 1762 , as the British siege of Manila intensified, the Spanish military urged Archbishop Rojo to convene a council of war. Despite Rojo's repeated attempts to negotiate a surrender, the civic and military leaders of Manila elected to fight. Meanwhile, the British forces launched a relentless bombardment, successfully breaching the walls of the San Diego bastion. They drained the defensive ditch, disabled the cannons at San Diego and the neighboring bastions of San Andres and San Eugenio, and set fire to sections of the town, forcing the Spanish defenders to retreat from their positions along the walls.
What followed was the looting of Manila. On October 6, 1762, the auxiliary forces engaged in a chaotic 40-hour pillage that unleashed widespread confusion and fear among the inhabitants of the walled city. The invaders’ diversity—speaking various languages and displaying different colors, complexions, and uniforms—only added to the turmoil as they ransacked homes, stole valuables, and committed acts of violence, including the molestation of women. Even British officers struggled to control their men amid the initial frenzy of assault and plunder.
According to accounts from Fray Martinez de Zuniga, many local inhabitants (Indios) also participated in the looting, often proving to be more ruthless than the invaders. Familiar with the locations of their masters' riches, they seized the opportunity to claim their share of the plunder. British accounts noted that captured natives serving in the Spanish army were released to gain the trust and favor of the local population, further complicating the chaotic situation during the invasion.
Upon realizing the extent of his troops' unruliness, Brigadier General William Draper sought to recover some of the looted valuables belonging to the citizens of Manila. The total value of the plunder was estimated at around $26,623, although Spanish sources claimed that the British soldiers had taken even more
Simon de Anda
The Real Audiencia de Manila organized a war council and appointed Oidor Don Simón de Anda y Salazar to lead the resistance. In early October 1762, he discreetly slipped out of Manila, taking with him a significant portion of the treasury and official documents. Using a secret passage, Anda made his way to a boat on the Pasig River and headed to Bulacan, where he established Spanish authority in the islands.
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| The year book of the "Manual y guía de forasteros en Madrid" listed the leadership and the Real Audencia de Manila in 1762. take notice the governor general Juan Gomez de la Torre--He was not able to assume office due to the sudden attack of Havana by the British. Simon de Anda was a member of the Audencia. |
On October 8, 1762, Anda informed Archbishop Rojo that he was assuming the role of Governor and Captain-General, as permitted by the Council of the Indies during foreign invasions. Incredibly, Rojo refused to acknowledge Anda's authority or surrender the royal seal.
The terms of surrender negotiated by the British guaranteed the rights of the Catholic Church, protected its property, and conferred British subject status on local citizens. Anda dismissed this agreement, asserting that Rojo had signed it under duress. He insisted on being recognized as the legitimate Governor-General before engaging in negotiations with the British, returning any letters that did not acknowledge him in that role.
Anda successfully raised an army of over 10,000 volunteers, primarily Filipinos, who, despite insufficient weapons, managed to hold the British forces largely confined to Manila and Cavite.
On November 26, the British forces routed Anda's troops from Pasig and established a post to control Laguna de Bay and the waterways leading to Bulacan. On January 19, 1763, the British launched a full-scale expedition against Anda's headquarters in Bulacan, reinforced by 400 Chinese civilians whom Anda had ordered executed for supporting the British. It was here then that about 180 Chinese were either killed by the Spanish or took their own lives out of fear. On January 22, British occupied Bulacan but were unable to advance further. Subsequently, Anda relocated his headquarters to Bacolor, Pampanga. In the following months, he gradually strengthened his position in Luzon, building up his forces until it became clear that British control in Manila was increasingly threatened.
Finally, on February 3, 1763, the Treaty of Paris was signed, effectively ending the Seven Years' War. However, news of the ceasefire and the treaty would not reach the Philippines right away. By August 26, 1763 a preliminary draft of the Peace of Paris was announced, which stipulated that all conquests made without knowledge at the time of signing should be returned to their original owners. Nevertheless, the British order to withdraw from Manila would not arrive for another six months.
In March 1764, the Spanish Crown appointed Francisco de la Torre as the new Governor-General of the Philippines, tasking him with overseeing the handover of the city in accordance with the 1763 Treaty of Paris. Meanwhile, British Governor Drake, facing accusations of mismanagement and harsh governance, departed the Philippines on March 29, 1764. On the same day, the Manila Council elected Alexander Dalrymple as the new British governor; however, the British troops stationed in Manila refused to recognize his authority. Consequently, on April 1, 1764, the remaining British military forces withdrew and set sail for home. This marked the restoration of Spanish control over Manila, with de la Torre assuming the role of Governor and Captain-General of the Spanish Philippines.
The Aftermath
Many valuable artifacts were taken during the British occupation of Manila. These included oil paintings from the Palacio del Gobernador in Intramuros, rare maps, charts, historical manuscripts, official documents, precious books, letters, and papers belonging to religious orders. Additionally, bundles of primary source materials detailing the history of the Philippines in the 17th century were seized. Dawsonne Drake, the British governor of Manila, took much of this collection, which eventually found its way to the British Museum in London or was auctioned off.
The fate of many looted items remains shrouded in mystery. One notable example is the Murillo Velarde Map of 1734, of which only a few copies are believed to exist. Of even greater significance, however, are the eight copper plates used to print this map. It is known that General William Draper, upon his return to England, donated these copper plates to his alma mater, Cambridge University. However, the current whereabouts of these valuable plates remain unknown.
Many war trophies, such as cannons, flags, and emblems, were also taken to India and displayed in British military installations. Spain, however, contested the blatant robbery of Manila’s historical and valuable artifacts for many years, even after the Treaty of Paris. The persistence of Spain, even years after the conflict, in seeking the return of these looted items highlights the immense cultural and historical significance of the artifacts taken from Manila.
Contrary to claims that the British occupation of Manila (1762–1764), significantly raised global awareness of the Philippines and exposed the country to possible international trade, it actually reinforced the Spanish authorities' cautious stance toward other European powers in Asia. Although short-lived, the occupation marked the first time that foreign powers directly challenged Spain’s dominance in the islands. This period briefly opened Manila to broader commercial interactions beyond the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade, introducing new economic possibilities. However, the full potential of international trade remained unrealized as Spain, after regaining control, reverted to its conservative policies, largely restricting the Philippines’ economic openness and maintaining its reliance on the galleon system. Despite emerging liberal voices advocating for expanded trade and modernization of the Islands, the colonial government clung to its old, medieval-like systems. The Catholic Church, in partnership with a weak colonial bureaucracy, maintained its grip on power, stifling progress and limiting the Philippines' potential for economic and technological advancement.
In praise of Bibingka, Biko and Other Sweet Delights
To conclude this article, I offer my praise to the traditional Filipino delicacies of Cainta—latik, bibingka, suman, and biko. These treats evoke memories of the dark-skinned, ambulant vendors who roamed the barrios in the 1970s. My elders referred to them as "taga-Cainta." With their aquiline noses, red lips, and tall features, these men and women stood out, different from the typical Pasigueños. It wasn’t until years later that I learned they were descendants of Sepoys—Indian soldiers who chose to remain in the Philippines after deserting the British army. These deserters found a new life here, and fittingly, went on to make some of our most beloved native desserts.
Now what about the French deserters? That will be our next topic.
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| Biko-- That rice coco delight--remembrance of 1762-1764 |
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