Jose Rizal And The Malay World

Rizal-The foremost Malay?

Pride of the Malay Race?

Interestingly, Rizal's ancestry was a diverse blend of different ethnicities. On his father's side, one of his ancestors was a Chinese immigrant from Fujian province, while his mother was said to be a descendant of the pre-Hispanic Tagalog-Malay nobility of Manila, specifically the Lakandula line. Some biographers even mention that Rizal had Spanish ancestry.

The Spaniards commonly referred to the native inhabitants of the Philippines as "Indios," classifying them as belonging to the "Malayo" (Malay) race. Many Spaniards viewed the "Indios" as primitive and indolent. Some went so far as to liken the native population to the Dayaks of Borneo, whom they often characterized as savages.

In the final hours before his execution, Rizal was asked to sign the notification of his sentence. Upon reviewing the document, he requested a correction, insisting that he had been incorrectly described as a Chinese mestizo. He wanted it amended to read "Indio puro."

Malay couple from Terengganu. From  Boxer's Codex. Manila (1590)

Naturales (Tagalog) Boxer's Codex. Manila (1590)

Defining "Malay" – A Challenge

The challenge lies in what I consider an oversimplification made by some 19th-century Western scholars in categorizing the brown-skinned peoples of the Malay Peninsula, the East Indies, Oceania, the Philippine archipelago, and Taiwan. These scholars often grouped these populations together based on shared cultural, linguistic, and physical characteristics. However, despite these similarities, there are significant differences among the so-called "Malays" that should not be ignored.

The term "Malay race" was frequently used in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to describe Austronesian peoples. Today, however, contemporary anthropologists, archaeologists, and linguists suggest that the ancestors of the Austronesian peoples—who are spread across the Sunda Islands, Madagascar, and Polynesia—originally migrated southward from the Philippines during the prehistoric period, with their roots traced back to Taiwan.

Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840), a German scientist, introduced the concept of the "Malay race" and classified the Malays as part of the brown race in his theory of five human races. However, many anthropologists have since rejected this classification, citing the "enormous complexity of classifying races."

Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752 – 1840)

The concept of the "Malay race" is entirely distinct from the self-identification and cultural understanding of the "ethnic Malays," the native populations of the Malay Peninsula and much of Indonesia.

In the Philippines, the term "Malay" has been commonly used to refer to the indigenous population of the country, as well as the native populations of neighboring countries like Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei. This misconception partly stems from the work of American anthropologist Henry Otley Beyer, who theorized that Filipinos were Malays who had migrated from Malaysia and Indonesia in successive waves of migration. For a long time, this theory was widely accepted by Filipino historians.

Rizal Scholar of Malay Study

José Rizal was one of the foremost Filipino scholars of Malay studies in the 19th century. To deepen his understanding of the Philippines and the broader Malay world, he forged connections with some of the most prominent European scholars of his time. Notable among them were Rudolf Virchow and Feodor Jagor. Rizal’s correspondence with his Austrian friend, Ferdinand Blumentritt, is particularly valuable for Malay studies, as it is filled with Rizal’s extensive readings, insights, and observations on the subject.

Ferdinand Blumentritt (1853-1913), born in Leitmeritz (modern-day Litoměřice in the Czech Republic), was a scholar who published numerous studies on Philippine history, culture, and languages. At the time he befriended José Rizal through correspondence, Blumentritt was teaching geography and history at the local Gymnasium (equivalent to a high school). His deep interest in the Philippines fostered a lasting intellectual friendship with Rizal, contributing to the broader understanding of Filipino culture and identity in Europe.

Feodor Jagor (1816-1900) was a German scientist and ethnographer, best known for his 19th-century book Reisen in den Philippinen (Travels in the Philippines), which left a profound impression on José Rizal. Through the introduction of Ferdinand Blumentritt, Rizal met Jagor during his time in Europe. Jagor, in turn, introduced Rizal to various scientific societies, further expanding his intellectual network and influence.

Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902), a renowned German physician, made groundbreaking contributions in various fields of science and medicine. He also served as a member of the German parliament, the Reichstag, from 1880 to 1893. Virchow was a leading figure in anthropology in late 19th-century Germany and founded the Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte (Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory). His research included studies on the crania of various races, including specimens from the Philippines. José Rizal had the opportunity to meet Virchow when Feodor Jagor, a German ethnologist, invited Rizal to a dinner hosted by the Geographic Society. This meeting exposed Rizal to some of the most prominent intellectuals of the time, further enriching his knowledge and insights during his stay in Europe.

Southeast Asia under Colonialism


For centuries, much of South East Asia were under the yoke of western imperialism.  From the mid 15th Century,  the region became a wealth base for European colonizers, with significant earnings coming from the spice trade.  It's proximity to China and India also added to its attractiveness.

Map -- "Insulae Moluccae Celeberrimae"1598 drawn by Dutch cartographer Petrus Plancius (1552-1622) showing the Philippines, the Malay Peninsula, and the East Indies (Indonesia) with emphasis on the island group below Mindanao called "Moluccas" the fabled "Spice Island, forever associated with the voyage of Magellan

Southeast Asia during the time of Rizal

16th Century Illustration of the Spice station in Batavia now Jakarta, Indonesia (Dutch East Indies). The colony was  a  source for cheap labour and manpower,  

A familiar scene in the Dutch East Indies. Native Malays serving the colonial master.

White man's burden? British colonial official in Malaya.

Early 1900's photo of a Javanese worker in a coffee and rubber plantation.

In the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia), native military units were organized to defend the colony from it's perceived enemies. Still, often they were used to suppress other ethnic groups showing resistance to the colonial power.

"Guardia Civil " - made up of native units. Seen here with captured "Katipunero" during the early days of the 1896 Philippine Revolution.

Agents of Colonialism

The European powers in Southeast Asia conceptualized an effective system in the colony in producing wealth for the mother country. The colonial government granted rights to groups and companies to oversee the economic viability of the conquered lands.

The Dutch East India Company (Dutch: Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, VOC, or "United East India Company") was a chartered company established in 1602 when the States-General of the Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly to conduct colonial activities in Asia. It was the second multinational corporation in the world, following the British East India Company, which was founded two years earlier, and the first company to issue publicly traded stocks. Often regarded as the world's first mega-corporation, the VOC held quasi-governmental powers, including the authority to wage war, imprison and execute convicts, negotiate treaties, mint currency, and establish colonies.

Flag of the British East India Company

Parts of Malaya were either administered or leased by the British East India Company. Under British rule, Malaya became one of the most profitable territories of the Empire, being the world's largest producer of tin and later rubber.

Flag of  British North Borneo Company

North Borneo (Sabah) was leased to the British North Borneo Company by the owner, the Sultanate of Sulu. Jose Rizal himself planed to bring the displaced farmers of Calamba to Sandakan, North Borneo.



During the early centuries of Spanish colonization, the Philippines did not develop an economy comparable to that of other Malay countries in Southeast Asia. Unlike its neighbors, it lacked valuable spices necessary to establish an agriculture- or export-based economy. Instead, the colony heavily relied on the revenue generated by the Manila Galleon trade. As a result, much of the country's arable land was left underdeveloped and fell into the hands of a few powerful estate owners. The Catholic Church, with its dominant influence over colonial society, became one of the largest landholders in the country. This was the Philippines that Rizal knew—a nation ruled by the "Frailocracy," or the governance of the friars.

Late 19th Century photo of Friars belonging to the Augustinian order

Rizal in Europe

Education in Europe provided young Filipinos like Rizal not only with "enlightenment" and new knowledge but also with exposure to freedoms and opportunities unavailable in the colony. They began to question, "If these rights are granted in the mother country, why not in the colony?" Those who had pursued higher education, whether in the Philippines or Europe, came to be known as the "Ilustrados" (the enlightened).

In addition to playing a key role in Filipino organizations in Spain, such as contributing articles to La Solidaridad, Rizal devoted himself to writing a novel that would expose the injustices of colonial rule. In 1887, Noli Me Tangere was published in Berlin. This literary work critiques the colonial society, highlighting the dysfunction and abuses of power under the Spanish regime and the friars.

Another influential work of the time was Max Havelaar by Multatuli (the pen name of Eduard Douwes Dekker). Written as a protest against the Dutch colonial policies in the East Indies, the book raised European awareness—particularly among the Dutch—that their wealth was built on the suffering in other parts of the world. In a letter to Ferdinand Blumentritt dated December 6, 1888, Rizal praised Multatuli's book as "extraordinarily interesting," suggesting that it might even be "much superior to Noli Me Tangere." However, he noted that Multatuli's critiques were less forceful compared to his own in Noli.

Redemption of Malays

While residing in Paris during the great Paris Exposition, Rizal and some Filipino friends witnessed Buffalo Bill's Wild West show. He was deeply impressed by the pride and dignity of the Native Americans, as reflected in their costumes, war paint, and feathered headdresses. This inspiration led him to establish the "Indios Bravos" or Brave Indians, a group that aimed to emulate this pride and resilience (as Filipinos were also derogatorily referred to as "Indios" by the Spaniards). The Indios Bravos was influenced by Masonic principles. According to Rizal's British biographer, Austin Coates, the group was "dedicated to the idea of courage" and aimed to unite the Filipino colony and promote manly sports. Within it was a secret inner group, known by the code letters Rd L.M. (Redención de los Malayos), which was committed to liberating the Malay peoples from colonial rule, starting with the Philippines and later extending to Borneo, Indonesia, and Malaya.

In his quest for reforms, Rizal not only sought to expose the errors of colonial rule but also critically addressed the shortcomings of the colonized people. His activism and writings drew severe backlash from the colonial government and the friars. During the Calamba land dispute, Rizal and his family, along with other leading families of the town, were forcibly removed from their properties and lands rented from friar estates. It was under these challenging circumstances that Rizal’s second novel, El Filibusterismo, was conceived.

The bill-poster of the Paris Expo 1889

Buffalo Bill posing with some of the Indians in his troupe.

Borneo Colonization Plan

In April 1892, while residing in Hong Kong, José Rizal visited Sandakan to discuss his plan for establishing a Filipino colony consisting of families displaced from Calamba. Rizal met with British colonial officials and received a favorable response from the British North Borneo Company. At the time, Sandakan was a remote village in need of a rice-growing community to fulfill local demands. Rizal was offered up to 5,000 acres of land rent-free for three years.

Despite the promising offer, the Borneo colonization plan ultimately failed to materialize. Some members of the Rizal family opposed the scheme, and when the new Spanish Governor-General received Rizal’s request for permission to settle landless farmers from Calamba in Borneo, he promptly issued a notice of disapproval. He argued that "the Philippines lacked laborers, and it was unpatriotic to cultivate foreign soil."

Shooting the Foremost Malay

In 1892, José Rizal returned to the Philippines and founded the La Liga Filipina. Among its members were individuals who would later play prominent roles in the 1896 revolution. However, shortly after its formation, Rizal was arrested and subsequently exiled to Dapitan. For some members of La Liga, Rizal's arrest marked the end of their hopes for a moderate reformist approach.

While in Dapitan, Rizal established a school for boys on his property, accepting both Christian and Muslim students. He emphasized the importance of working and studying together as one unified group.

In August 1896, as the Katipunan-led revolution erupted, Rizal was on his way to Cuba as a volunteer for the Spanish Army Medical Corps. He was arrested en route and returned to Manila. In late December 1896, Rizal was sentenced to death by musketry. The Spanish authorities accused him of being "the living inspiration of the revolution." On the morning of December 30, 1896, Rizal met his end at Luneta, Bagumbayan.

December 30 1896. Rizal's execution

Rizal: An Inspiring Patriot

A century after his execution at Luneta, José Rizal remains a figure of profound interest and study among Malay intellectuals. As the region explores with renewed vigor the essence of Malay identity and consciousness, could Rizal serve as a relevant model for understanding the shared bonds within the Malay World? His life and ideas may offer valuable insights for those seeking to connect and define a common heritage among the peoples of this diverse region. Rizal continues to resonate with many of the region's intellectuals, bridging past and present in the ongoing quest for unity and identity.

Pramoedya Ananta Toer (February 6, 1925 – April 30, 2006) Indonesian author of novels, short stories, essays, polemic, and histories of his homeland and its people. -- His works span the colonial period, Indonesia's struggle for independence, its Occupation by Japan during World war II as well as the post-colonial authoritarian regimes of Sukarno and Suharto. All these are infused in personal and national history. In his writings, he mentioned Jose Rizal and used the Philippine experience to compare the ideals of the Indonesian struggle.

Wenceslao Quinito Vinzons (September 28, 1910 — July 15, 1942) Filipino politician and leader of the armed resistance against the Japanese during World War II. He was among the first Filipinos to organize guerrilla resistance against the Japanese. In July 1942, he and some members of his family were executed by Japanese soldiers. Vinzons was born in the town of Indan, Camarines Norte to Gavino Vinzons and Engracia Quinito. He graduated valedictorian from his local high school and proceeded to Manila to study at the University of the Philippines. While at the university, Vinzons gained fame as a student leader and was also known for delivering an oratorical address entitled "Malaysia Irredenta," where he advocated the unification of Southeast Asian nations with a common Malay origin. The piece won him the Manuel L. Quezon gold medal for excellence. Vinzon's ideas were inspired by Rizal's dream of a Malayan unity.

Rosihan Anwar (May 10, 1922 – April 14, 2011) Indonesian journalist and author. He was born in Kubang Nan Dua, West Sumatra. Rosihan received his early education at HIS and MULO in Padang. He continued his studies at the AMS in Yogyakarta and participated in a journalism workshop at Columbia University, New York. His career began as a reporter in the Asia Raya newspaper during the Japanese Occupation. In 1947, he founded Siasat magazine. He was also the founder and editor of the Pedoman newspaper, which was twice forcibly closed by the Sukarno regime (1961) and Suharto's New Order administration (1974), because of its vocal criticism to the authoritarian regime. He translated Jose Rizal's poem "Mi Ultimo Adios" in Bahasa Indonesia, where it was recited by the soldiers of the Indonesian independence movement before going to battle.

Syed Hussein Alatas (September 17, 1928 – January 23, 2007) was a Malaysian academician, sociologist, founder of social science organizations, and former politician. Syed Hussein wrote several books with subjects dealing with imperialism, multiculturalism, and the history of colonial societies. He read Rizal's '"Indolence of the Filipinos" and wrote his comment and critic on it in his famous work- "The Myth of the Lazy Native."

Anwar Ibrahim (born August 10, 1947) - Prime Minister of Malaysia. While still Deputy Prime Minister, Anwar organized an international conference on Jose Rizal in October 1995. He called Rizal an "Asian Renaissance Man " and "the greatest Malayan." Once considered as heir apparent to Mahathir, he had a falling out with the Prime Minister. He was sentenced for 6 years on corruption charges and a misdemeanor crime of sodomy. All of which Anwar branded as political harassment. In June 2004, the charges were reversed, and Anwar was released. In July 2008, he was arrested again over allegations he sodomized one of his male aides but was acquitted of the charge in January 2012. The identified leader of the "Reformasi" movement in Malaysia, Anwar, believes that much of Southeast Asia is inflicted by human cancer that Rizal wrote; the cancer of corruption.

"The Philippine revolution, the first of its kind in Asia, opened the floodgates of liberation against Western imperialism. More than physical bondage, it aimed to break the chains of mental captivity. In Rizal's words: "We must win freedom by deserving it, by improving the mind and enhancing the dignity of the individual, loving what is just, good and great, to the point of dying for it. When a people reach these heights . . . the idols and tyrants fall like a house of cards, and freedom shines in the first dawn." ~ Anwar Ibrahim"

José Rizal and Indonesia's "Merdeka" Period, 1946

Here is a page from the Indonesian publication Minggoean Merdeka ("Independence Day"), where the entire issue dated July 6, 1946, was dedicated to the theme of Philippine independence. The struggle and eventual freedom won by the Filipinos had long served as an inspiration for Indonesian writers and freedom fighters. This particular page focuses on the biography of José Rizal, written by the renowned Javanese author Suardi Tasrif (1922–1991). In the same section is a well-known Bahasa Indonesia translation of Rizal's Ultimo Adios, translated by Rosinah Anwar (1922–2011), who was also the editor of Minggoean Merdeka.

On August 17, 1945, Soekarno proclaimed Indonesia’s independence in front of his home. However, the fight for Merdeka or freedom from the imperialist Dutch (Netherlands) lasted several more years.

During Indonesia’s struggle for independence, the Philippines served as one of their inspirations. They revisited the narrative of struggle for freedom of the Filipinos, highlighting and introducing its heroes to the Indonesian people, drawing strength and courage from them. Like the Philippines, they proclaimed they could do it too! The spirit of Rizal’s final poem was spread widely, printed in their underground newspapers, and read on the radio for Indonesian revolutionary soldiers to hear in the heat of battle.

It is noteworthy that in 1946, Rosihan Anwar and Suardi Tasrif were in the prime of their youth. We are reminded of Rizal's line:

"Where are the youth who will dedicate their blooming hours, their dreams, and their enthusiasm to the welfare of their homeland? Where are those who will generously shed their blood to wash away so much shame, so many crimes, so much abomination?"