Francis of Assisi and Giotto di Bondone -- Reflections On The Middle Ages

Saint Francis of Assisi Receiving the Stigmata ca. 1295-1300 by Giotto

 

Ora et labora... et bella?

The life of a peasant in Medieval Europe was often perceived as insignificant, a relentless struggle for survival marked by scarce resources and complete dependence on the landlord. God’s presence loomed heavily over their daily lives, shaping their thoughts and actions. Ora et labora—"pray and work"—was the essence of their existence? As temporal authorities, the Church, and the nobility vied for dominance over society, peasants and serfs were often met with disdain and suspicion. Their essential role in sustaining the very foundation of society was frequently overlooked. Ironically, the oppressive structure of feudalism was sometimes justified as the divine will.

The Medieval period was also punctuated by wars or "bella" that brought forth figures of renown from both noble and warrior ranks. Yet amidst the violence and political intrigue of the 13th-century Italian city-states, a saint emerged from the crucible of conflict, embodying a different kind of heroism.

Medieval Knight from Westminster Psalter ca. 1250

Francis of Assisi

Giovanni Francesco di Bernardone, later known as Francis of Assisi, was born in 1182 to a prosperous cloth merchant in the Umbria region of Italy. As a youth, Francis led a life characterized by indulgence, reveling in luxury, fine clothing, and the privileges afforded by his wealthy background. In 1201, he sought further adventure by joining a military campaign against the neighboring city-state of Perugia. Captured during the conflict, Francis spent a year as a prisoner in Collestrada. Upon his release, he returned home and soon fell gravely ill in 1204, a turning point that initiated his gradual spiritual transformation.

By 1205, Francis set out to join the army of the Count of Brienne in Puglia, seeking further military exploits. However, a divine vision intervened, prompting him to abandon his ambitions. He embraced a life of poverty and spiritual contemplation, renouncing his former lifestyle. In 1209, inspired by a sermon on the Gospel, Francis began preaching repentance in the Umbrian countryside. Adopting a simple, austere existence, he wore coarse garments and rejected material wealth, dedicating his life entirely to serving God.

Francis' message of humility and devotion soon attracted followers, and his reputation as a spiritual leader grew. Seeking formal recognition of his burgeoning movement, he obtained an audience with Pope Innocent III in 1210. The Pope, who had reportedly dreamt of a humble figure supporting a collapsing church, saw in Francis the fulfillment of this vision and approved the foundation of the Franciscan Order. This new order rapidly gained prominence, focusing on rebuilding churches and providing aid to the poor.

In September 1224, while engaged in deep prayer on Mount La Verna, Francis experienced the Stigmata—the manifestation of the five wounds of Christ’s crucifixion. His health declined following this event, and, suffering from both the Stigmata and an eye condition, Francis died on October 3, 1226, in Porziuncola, reputedly singing praises to God in his final moments.

Central to Francis of Assisi's teachings was the belief in the intrinsic connection between God and the natural world. In his Canticle of the Creatures, Francis personified elements of nature—such as the sun, moon, wind, and water—viewing them as integral parts of a divine creation in which humanity played a role, but not the central one. This theological perspective challenged anthropocentric views prevalent at the time, advocating for a more harmonious relationship between humans and the natural environment.

Francis is also credited with popularizing the use of live animals in Nativity scenes, emphasizing the importance of the natural world in the Christian narrative. His views on the sanctity of creation extended beyond mere reverence; he argued that humanity had a responsibility to care for and protect the environment, not only for its own sake but for the well-being of all creatures. His radical commitment to poverty and solidarity with the poor, combined with his ecological consciousness, marked a significant shift in Medieval thought and continues to influence contemporary discourses on social justice and environmental stewardship.

Francis of Assisi - Attributed to the Italian painter Giovanni Cimabue (1240-1302)

Giotto and the Art of Being Human

Giotto di Bondone, more commonly known as Giotto, was an influential Italian painter and architect born around 1266 in the region of Florence. Although little is known about his early life, historical accounts suggest that he trained under the notable Florentine artist Cimabue. Giotto’s contemporaries recognized his talent early on, with one account noting, “In his time, Giotto was the preeminent master of painting, adept at rendering figures and their features true to nature.”

Following the fall of Rome, the preservation and continuation of the arts and learning became largely one responsibility of the Catholic Church. Over the course of three centuries, the Church directed the development of knowledge and artistic expression in ways that aligned with its religious doctrines. During Giotto’s era, Byzantine art dominated the European aesthetic. This style, which was heavily influenced by religious symbolism, often presented human figures in a stylized and abstract manner. Realism, a hallmark of Classical antiquity, was viewed with suspicion by the Church, which associated it with paganism. As a result, Byzantine art often featured static, rigid figures that lacked individuality, reduced to icon-like representations with little attention to human anatomy or naturalistic form.

Giotto, however, initiated a significant departure from these established conventions. In works such as the Ognissanti Madonna, while the overall composition retained elements of the Byzantine tradition—such as the arrangement of religious figures—Giotto introduced a groundbreaking level of realism. His figures, though still grounded in a religious context, exhibited a tangible human presence. Unlike the flat, schematic figures of Byzantine art, Giotto’s subjects possessed volume, weight, and distinct facial expressions. Their gestures and postures conveyed a lifelike immediacy that was largely absent in the dominant artistic style of the period.

This shift marked the beginning of a new artistic approach that emphasized naturalism and humanity, anticipating the Renaissance’s focus on the human figure and the observable world. Giotto’s pioneering work laid the groundwork for a transformation in Western art, moving away from the symbolic abstraction of the medieval period towards a more human-centered representation of religious themes. Through his innovations, Giotto not only revitalized Italian painting but also reintroduced the concept of art as a mirror of the human experience, blending spiritual content with a profound understanding of human form and emotion.

Ognissanti Madonna ca. 1310 by Giotto

Giotto on Francis of Assisi

Giotto’s association with the life of Saint Francis of Assisi is exemplified in his celebrated frescoes, particularly those in the Bardi Chapel. This distinguished series of seven frescoes depicts key moments from the life of the saint, illustrating significant episodes with a clarity and realism that departed sharply from the Byzantine artistic conventions of the time. Giotto’s approach diverged from the symbolic, rigid style characteristic of Byzantine art, embracing a more naturalistic and human-centered portrayal of religious subjects. His work in the Bardi Chapel represents not only a homage to Saint Francis but also a pivotal moment in the evolution of Western art, as it signaled a departure from medieval traditions and laid the foundation for the artistic innovations of the Renaissance. Through these frescoes, Giotto effectively introduced a new visual language that emphasized the human experience, foreshadowing the naturalism and emotional depth that would come to define Renaissance art.

Portrait of Giotto made years after his death

Postscriptum

San Damiano Cross, said to be the one that had spoken with Francis of Assisi. It's Byzantine style by the way, it makes one wonder whether the voice he heard was Greek, Italian or Latin? -- Giotto, years later, certainly heard a different voice, telling him to do away with the old Byzantine iconographic style where Christ does not bear the human face of suffering -- The lord of the poor and the forsaken? Giotto heard this voice of change. He painted a savior in pain, saints, like the virgin mother, in lament...Man in anguish and a God partaking in the suffering of all humanity.

Lamentation (the mourning of Christ)-Detail. ca 1304-1306 by Giotto. The human face of despair and suffering, ushering a new realism in Medieval times that finally led to a new philosophy.

Feudalism

During the time of Francis of Assisi, feudalism was a dominant social and economic system in Europe. The nobility controlled vast tracts of land, which secured their socio-political dominance, as land ownership was the primary measure of wealth. In contrast, the peasants, who owned nothing, had only their labor to sell.

The late 13th and 14th centuries were marked by a period of climatic cooling and unpredictable weather. Harvest failures and famines had devastated populations long before the pandemic of the Black Death. For instance, during the Great Famine of 1315–1317 in England, up to 15% of the population perished, according to historical records. As wages plummeted and grain prices soared, many were pushed deeper into poverty. Records from English manors show that by 1290, 70% of English families were living at or below the poverty line—barely able to afford enough food and goods to avoid hunger or cold. Meanwhile, the wealthiest 3% of households controlled 15% of the nation’s income.

Meanwhile: The Black Death

Citizens of Tournai, Belgium bury plague victims. Miniature from "The Chronicles of Gilles Li Muisis" (1272–1352). Bibliothèque royale de Belgique, MS 13076–77, f. 24v.

The 14th century was a tumultuous period, marked by profound upheavals that reshaped the course of European history. As you noted, it began with a period of climatic cooling, often referred to as the "Little Ice Age," which caused widespread crop failures and famine. This, in turn, weakened the population, making them more vulnerable to the catastrophes that followed, most notably the Black Death.

The Black Death, which spread from China through trade routes, decimated Europe in the mid-14th century. It wasn't just the plague itself that caused devastation; the pre-existing malnutrition and ongoing conflicts, like the Hundred Years' War between England and France, compounded the misery. The period also saw the Great Schism in the Catholic Church, where rival Popes in Rome and Avignon excommunicated each other, further dividing European society.

As for how the plague ended, it wasn't a single event but rather a gradual process. The Black Death recurred in waves throughout Europe until the 17th century, but each outbreak was less devastating than the last. The survivors of the initial wave did indeed develop some degree of immunity. This concept of "genetic improvement" is tied to natural selection—those with genetic traits that made them more resistant to the plague survived and passed those traits to their offspring. Over time, populations became more resilient, and better sanitation, quarantines, and changes in living conditions helped curb the disease's spread.

The end of the Black Death also marked significant social, economic, and cultural changes. Labor shortages due to the high mortality rate gave surviving workers more bargaining power, leading to the collapse of feudal systems in many areas. The scarcity of labor and shifting economic dynamics accelerated the development of new technologies and agricultural practices, ultimately setting the stage for the Renaissance.

In sum, the Black Death ended through a combination of natural immunity, better understanding of disease control, and societal adaptation. It was a key factor in shaping the modern world, as Europe emerged from the pandemic fundamentally altered, both genetically and structurally.

Oh that's me-- At the Roman Temple of Minerva in Assisi. Still in praise of paganism?